War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714)

  

 

      

     

     After the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700, all of his possessions were left to his half-sister’s grandson, Philip duc d’Anjou, also the grandson of the French King Louis XIV. The passing entitled Philip to the throne of Spain. However, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold was not pleased with the newly crowned king.  

  

 

       French territory rapidly expanded under the guidance of King Louis XIV. European nations--primarily Portugal, England, and the Dutch Republic--were threatened by Louis XIV’s aggressive appetite for land, and feared the probable unification of Spain and France. As time progressed, more and more Europeans mirrored Portugal, England, and the Dutch Republic’s hostility toward France. The opposing nations gathered together in support of Leopold I.   

 

 

        The size of troops on the Grand Alliance (*note: find more on the Grand Alliance and Two Crowns) and the Two Crowns were fairly even. The Grand Alliance was to be part of two wars: The Nine Years War, and The War of Spanish Succession. The French Army was Europe’s largest at the time, though Spain’s military status was quickly expanding. On the Alliance side (*note: check validity), the Dutch possessed the most soldiers, followed by the Austrian Hasburg and English armies.

 

     Due to King Louis XIV’s rapid expansion and accomplishments for France, the general expectation was that the French would succeed. In Italy in 1701, the war began after a surprise Austrian offensive conducted by Eugen, prince of Savoy-Carignan. The following year, Bavaria joined France while Portugal and Savoy joined the alliance. France continued to dominate, envisioning a victorious future until the Franco Bavarians were defeated by the Alliance, led by John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, in the Battle of Blenheim. The Alliance’s success earned them control over Gibraltar. Marlborough celebrated two years later in the Battle of Ramillies. This undertaking greatly influenced the Alliance’s faith to invade the Spanish Netherlands. Eugen triumphed at the Siege of Turin, and in 1708, the Alliance claimed Oudenaarde and the Siege of Lille. The war of Spanish Succesion claimed nearly 400,00 lives when the fighting was over.

 

 

     The peace Treaty of Utrecht was reached in 1713 ending a two year war between Spain and an Anglo-French alliance. Under the treaty, the allies agreed to the Spanish succession in the Italian duchies. Through this also Britain retained Gibraltar. Philip was once again acknowledged as King Philip V of Spain. However, Philip decided to reject his position in the French line of succession, and retained the Spanish overseas empire. ^[1]

 

 

 

Photo Courtesy Of: http://wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/262/268312/art/figures/KISH_17_398.gif 

 

 

 

 

The Methuen Treaty

 

Concurrent to the War of Spanish Succession, trading alliances between England and Portugal were strengthened. The english supplied wool in exchange for Portuguese wine. The pact was initiated by the marriage of Charles II and Catherine of Braganza(Portugal). Portugal's alliance with England was crucial during the Spanish Succession because it kept the economy flowing while keeping French goods out of England. The portuguese agreed to allow in English woolen goods, while the English offered a preferencial duty on portuguese wine. The official treaty came into fruition when John Methuen declared it on December 27, 1703^[2].

 

      

 

Frederick William I of Prussia(1713-1740)

 

 

              

 

While Spanish Succession was nearing an end, Frederick William I came into power as the king of Prussia. During this time, he settled peace negotations with other nations in Europe. Though Prussia did not have much involvement in what was left of the War of the Spanish Succession by the time Frederick William I started ruling; he still had an obligation to build the nation's military. Prussia's military was very weak at the time of Frederick William's rise to power. He had been given the title "Soldatenkonig", which meant the "Soldier King". Frederick William had a particulary interest in military training, he became a great asset as he turned the Prussian Army into one of Europe's largest military powers.

 

 

 

 

Frederick William I was also able to fund his military by raising taxes on Prussian citizens. Frederick William took a weak Prussia and made it into a wealthy strong nation. Though these contributions made Prussia an intimidating military force, Frederick William knew that he should not put his great army at any risk, or jeoporadize Prussia's finances.^[3]

 

Captain Vitus Bering Discovers Alaska

 

               Captain Vitus Bering sailed for Russia's navy. Bering's name has been preserved in history for having the Bering Strait named after him. He also greatly impressed Peter the Great of Russia during his work. Later Vitus retired to his home in Finland. Not long after he was called back by Peter the Great to take command of the Siberian expedition. The purpose of this expedition was to determine once and for all whether Asia and North America were joined. Bering was to find and chart America's northwest coast. On an expedition to find American land, Bering stumbles upon the coast of Alaska. In the midst of a storm, Bering's ship is seperated from the other Russian ships sent out on this expedition. However, this works in Bering's favor. The discovery shows much potential for Russian trade; in Alaska, Bering and his crew start collecting Otter fur and make a profit by selling it in Russia. Vitus Bering dies shortly after his discovery of Alaska in 1741.^[4]

 

 Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713) 

 

  

  Queen  Anne's war was the second in a series of five French and Indian Wars fought between France and England in North America for continent control

In 1702 Europe was convulsed in a war, this time over the issue of succesion to the spanish throne. In North America, the fighting involved not only the British and the French in the north, but  also the British against the Spanish in the South. In addition to the two main combatants the war  also involved  numerous American Indian  tribes allied with each nation  and Spain  which was allied with France.

      As the Spanish Succession was taking place in Europe the British, Spanish, and French in North America began to fight in what was known as Queen Anne's War. It is known as Queen Ann's War because she ascended into the English throne at that time. Though both conflicts had different names, they were both fought by the same countries. North Americans involved in this war were born in colonies and wanted to stop the union of France and Spain. Along with Algonquian allies, the French committed a series of destructive invasions in Western New England, notably their attack of Deerfield, Massachusetts in 1704. Also another attack was led by a Canadian named Leneuf de Beaubassin in Haverfield, Massachusetts about one year earlier. However it was not succesful.

 

Hostilies in the South were highlighted by the British capture of St. Augustine in Spanish Florida and by a failed Spanish attack against Charleston, South Carolina.

 

    

 

      Under Francis Nicholson, British forces pushed northward, conquering French Acadian Port Royal in 1710. The British’s naval attack on Quebec was not as fortunate. Enmity grew in the South with the British capture of Spanish Saint Augustine in Florida, and Spain’s unsuccessful attack against Charleston, South Carolina.   

 

 

      The Treaty of Utrecht settled the North American conflicts as well as the Spanish Succession. Newfoundland, fur trading posts along the Hudson Bay, and Nova Scotia became British territory. Several islands along Cape Breton Island and the Saint Lawrence River were left to France.

 

 quebec

          

 

 

 

Photo Courtesy Of: http://www.nationalgalleries.org/collection/online_search/4:324/result/0/1738 ^[5]

 

 

Burning of Deerfield, MA (part of Queen Anne's War) 

 

 

      

 

Although the War of Spanish Succession took place in Europe, its effects spilled into the colonies.

 

 

 In the predawn hours of February 29, 1704, Native American and French allies, led by Jean-Baptiste Hertel de Rouville, attacked the English settlement of Deerfield, Massachusetts. French, French Canadians, and Native Americans, mostly members of Kanienkehaka (Mohawk), Wendat (Huron), Wôbanakiak, and Pocumtuck tribes, made up Rouville’s forces. The town of Deerfield was painted red with the blood of forty-one English and six allies. Houses were pillaged and burned to ashes. The Native and French allies claimed captives who were then marched the grueling three hundred miles North to New France. Those who resisted, or seemed unfit to survive the lengthy trek in the middle of winter, were killed. 

 

 

 

 

 

              

Ironically, rumors of a French and Native American allied attack spread throughout Massachusetts only days earlier. Deerfield’s palisade was reinforced, and soldiers were sent to defend the town. However, the surprise attack before sunrise caught the English off guard, serving as an advantage to the alliance. 

 

 

 

             Those who reached Quebec were either ransomed or managed to escape back to New England. However, a few captives, including Eunice Williams, daughter of Deerfield’s pastor, chose to stay in Native American and French communities until their deaths. Eunice married a Iroquois, adopted the Iroquois name of “A’ongonte”, and raised a family in the Catholic Indian community of Kahnawake. She returned to Deerfield with her Iroquoian family, and name, thirty-six years later. ^[6]

 

        

Photo Courtesy Of: http://imagecache.allposters.com/images/pic/NWPPOD/EVNT2A-00266%7EBurning-of-Deerfield-Massachusetts-during-an-Indian-Attack-c-1704-Posters.jpg 

http://valeriemacpherson.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/deerfield.jpg

 

 

 

    

 Deism describes a view of English and continental thinkers. In Europe, late in the seventeenth century there were many Deism followers. Late in the eighteenth century a small number of influential Americans followed along. Deism rejected the Chrisitian divinity of Christ view and stongly agreed with morality. Christ was viewed as simply a teacher of morality. Two examples of influencial American leader deists are John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. They both believed reason overpowered religion and its claims. John Toland was another deist that had a large audience in the colonies, and his works challenged Christians orthodox belief.

 

 

 

     John Locke was a philosopher that laid the foundation of what most Americans believed was government. He wrote a lot on religion and in the eighteen century his works on toleration became prime reading to those that were againt the theory of religious uniformity. He did believe in reason but rejected the deist belief that he was their spiritual mentor.

 

 

 

           In the colonies St. James Church, an early episcopal church, was built in South Carolina's oldest Anglican parish. It was right outside of Charleston,  and was built in 1711 to 1719. In the eighteenth century churchs in America came in many different styles. Some were larger, and elegant and others were plain and modest like those in rural areas. These churchs clearly showed the different traditions and cultures and the different wealth of those who built them. Examples would be if a Angican Church was built in rural South Carolina it would have lots of wood carved details to impress those of that rural area, then a Baptist CHurch in rural Virginia would be very plain because those there like the simiplicity. Though this time period the number of churchs increase ten fold along with the growing population of the Americas.

 

 

 

 

         The Christ Church of Philadelphia was an example of a well established congregation that was built to glorify God. The church was completed in 1744 with remodeling. It combinated simplicity and elegance to make a remarkable house of worship. Worship in this time period was done by everyone, almost like law, so the churches were expected to be well established. In this time different religion was what was important compared to sports or politics of present day.

 

 

 

On the northern edge of New York City in 1712 the New York Slave Rebellion took place. Twenty five slaves armed with guns and clubs burned down houses and killed nine whites and injured six. The rebels were killed after the soldiers arrived. The eighteen survivers were put through tortuous execution.

The conditions of New York  made communication easy because of the closeness of plantations. The conditions were harsh, which made the resentment worsen.

 

 

European Culture 

 

 

St. Matthew's Passion (1728-1729) 

 

               Johann Sebastian Bach wrote a composition called St. Matthew's Passion describing the events of Jesus Christ's crucifixion and death. Bach performed his completed piece for the first time at the church of St. Thomas in Leipzig, Germany on March 15th 1729. Bach's composition was culturally relevant for it's power and popularity amongst its listeners.^[7]

 

 

 

English Artist, William Hogarth painted a scene from John Gay's The Beggar's Opera. This painting would be displayed in London during 1729 for its world premiere. John Gay's play was a satire of contemporary life and government corruption in England.^[8]

 

 

 

 

 

 

               For the first time, Sir Isaac Newton's Principia had been translated into English by Andrew Motte. (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-principia/)

 

 

Newton's Influence on Harvard's Curriculum

     Shortly Around Newton's release of Principia, Harvard adds new classes to their curriculum. Mathematics and Science find homage at Harvard by 1728. Though this occurs one year prior to Principia's translation, Principia and Sir Issac Newton still have influence on North American culture. This shows Sir Issac Newton's influence in a developing country, as well as Harvard's advancements toward academia.^[9]

 

1738: Harvard hires its first Research Scientist

     John Winthrop taught Astronomy at Harvard, only the second professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy.^[10] Winthrop was the first hired person at Harvard to explain natural occurences in the earth using Astronomy and sciences related to his field. ^[11] Winthrop also furthered the progression of Harvard's science curriculum; medicine, algebra, and calculus became available classes during his time at Harvard. Winthrop would take the role of acting president over the college twice; once in 1769, and again in 1773. It is notably interesting to state that his house would later become famous for hosting Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Wayside as it was called.^[12]

 

 Education of Women

During the 1700’s there were private venture English grammar schools that were the first secondary institution to accept female students. Here the girls would learn the three R’s, geography, and French, but they would also learn English grammar, history, and Latin. Only in higher sophisticated schools the girls would be taught all of these subjects. In the Middle Colonies there was a larger number of venture schools there for the girls to be taught at, and this was an advantage to them because it gave them a larger opportunity to receive a higher education. ^[13]The general purpose for women to be educated during this time was to learn how to do house hold duties and chores. Most women who were highly educated were thought to be useless to a man or society for the most part. ^[14]

 

 

 

The Great Awakening (1730's and 1740's)

 

     The Enlightenment began in Europe actually and a century later came to the colonies of America. In Europe it was all about reviving the lost interest in eduction, literature, and science. It was believed that progress was in the power of human reason. Liberal ideas were adopted by some clergy which became know as Rational Christianity. In Raional Christianity salvation was given to everyone by God, not just the chosen ones. They strongly believed reason was God's gift to humans. All the confusion amongst the people made it possible to challenge the divine right of the king. This movement allowed people to realize they had the power to be individuals and better themselves and live there own lives. Living during this period was strongly encouraging the scientific approach. This in turn caused many colleges to be founded.

 

     After the Enlightenment ended, the Great Awakening began. In the 1730s and 1740s many religious and spiritual revivals occurred. This lead to common views across races and the North and South. The Great Awakening markes the first mass social movement in the history of the United States. It was mainly focused on by the middle and southern colonies. The New England colonies were highly based on Puritan values and any change would be rebellious and demonic. The main reason for this transformation was due to the question of religious style; this includes personal faith, church practice, and public decorum. There were two crisis that were within the ministry, one was in determining to what degree should be organizational purity be maintained and the other was the crisis between the clergy and laity in determining how much a minister's salary should be and how much politics should be introduced within the church.

 

The Great Awakening was a reaction against the elaborate theological doctrines, emotional stagnation, and liberal doctrines of the already established churches. Certain doctrines were introduced by certain individuals and groups that challenged already exisiting documents from already powerful churches and congregations. For instance, Arminianism directly challenged Calvinism's predestination doctrine and was supported by large groups of ministers who seeked a change. This doctrine said that man is not hopeless in achieving regeneration, it stated that his will can be an effective tool and force in his being saved. These groups and radical changers saw themseleves as beneficiaries of a direct inspiration from God and this became their motivation to continue and strengthen the Great Awakening.

 

John Edwards has been acredited with creating and starting the Great Awakening. He pursued and encouraged the beliefs that slavation can be found through good works, that the dependence on God's grace is crucial to be saved, and he emphasized the evils of eternal damnation. He is more connected to the "Old Lights" of the Great Awakening who were tradtional orthodox clergymen, liberal in views and deeply skeptical of emotial sermons that seemed theatrical. The "New Light"'s were ready to revitalize religion in the Americas. They encouraged emotional sermons and were the exact opposite of the "Old Lights." The most famous of the "New Lights" was George Whitefield who was a brilliant English orator who was in love with the Bible and was one of the most influential religious leaders of the time period. George Whitefield made seven visits to America, the first in 1738. He obtained so much respect in these trips, he was seen by many comparable to George Washington. His trips went into 1741, and through this time was the most booming time of the Great Awakening in the colonies.

 

     Evangelicalism came out of the darkness when the Great Awakening began. In evangelicalism the Word of God in preaching was said to transform sin into "new birth." During the being of the eighteenth century at the Connecticut River Valley local awakenings had begun. By the 1730s these awakenings had spread all over the colonies, to England, Scotland, and Wales. In mass preachers like George Whitefield would heal thousands into new birth. The "New Lights"  and New Side Prebyterians spread the Great Awakening to the Southern colonies.  

 

The outcomes of the Great Awakening brought good and bad results. A huge transformation in the religious aspect of life within America erupted during and after this time period. It was after this time period that American churches began to be so competetive, while undermining the older clergy. It also caused religion tolerance along with religious revivals. The Great Awakening opened the colonists eyes, and for the first time allowed the to have there own opinion on religion. But this transformation forced many to become back in touch with religion, colleges were created for the survival of a Christian race (Dartmouth, Rutgers, Princeton), and a new wave of missionary work began on the local Native Americans and slaves. It ultimitly was another push in the direction that the divine right of the King to have power over America, was not very necesssary anymore. His authority was beginning to be questioned.

 

 

 

 

 

Freedom Of The Press(1735)

 

 

                August 5th, 1735, John Peter Zenger was announced as "Not Guilty" by a trial of twelve jurors in New York. Zenger was tried on account of having "seditious libels" against New York's governor William Cosby. William Cosby was appointed to govenor before arriving in the colonies; during this time before he came, Rip Van Dam served as an acting governor over New York. Cosby felt that he deserved the money that Van Dam had earned during his appointment of "acting governor." It was later believed that Cosby owed Van Dam, contrary to Cosby's accusations.

 

 

               In 1732, Cosby attempted to have his court held in front of a Court of Exchequer. This attempt was unsuccesful when the Supreme Court voted against it 2 to 1. Chief Justice Lewis Morris voted against Cosby, and would later report it alongside with his reasons why in a pamphlet published by John Peter Zenger. Morris's spot in the Supreme Court would be replaced by James Delancey after Cosby had removed Morris. Morris's removal was based upon Cosby's biased judgement.

 

 

               Rip Van Dam and William Cosby banned together to start what would be known as the Popular Party, an initial attack on Cosby. An attorney named James Alexander would also team up with the two against Cosby, Alexander would later become one of the founders of the New York Gazette. Gradually, Cosby was losing support for his appointment as governor as well as his administration.

 

               Cosby attempted to redeem his name in the media by having a hired man named, Francis Harison write praises in Cosby's favor in the New York Gazette. Harison had these praises published on January 7th, 1734.^[15]

 

 

 

 

               

 

 King George’s War (1744-1748)  

 

 

            The death of Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VI positioned France, Spain, and Prussia against the British, provoking war in Europe as well as Anglo-French colonies. The French inflicted warfare in the colonies in 1722 by attacking the British in Canso, Nova Scotia. The fort was demolished, and British captives were driven to the French stronghold at Lousibourg on Cape Breton Island. Established by the French in 1713, Louisbourg paid homage to King Louis XIV and served as a base for French privateers. The French then attempted to reclaim Port Royal, but were unsuccessful. The war took a heavy toll on the nothern colonies.

 

            Hatred and resentment toward the French was centered in New York and New England. The strict New England Protestants hostility towards the French Roman Catholics did not help either. 

 

 

            In 1745, a wealthy merchant, William Pepperrell, gathered a force of over 4,000 men. Pepperrell’s main objective was to conquer Louisbourg, the most secure French position in America. After a two-month blockade of Louisbourg, British soldiers raided the fort, demanding the French to surrender. Pepperrell was later rewarded for his courageous efforts by a baronetcy given by George II. The French King was astonished at the fall the his great fortress in America.

 

            Considering their loss, the French flourished on the western frontier. Along Lake Champlain, they set up fort at Crown Point. Their new position was served as a beneficial area for Native Americans to assault English settlements. In response, Sir William Johnson conducted the Iroquois’ strike back against the French. The French and English continued to lash out on one another’s settlements. Both sides suffered enormous losses; however, it was unclear who claimed victory in the West.                            

                                          

            In 1746, the French schemed the recapturing of Louisbourg. After their Louisbourg triumph, they planned to battle the Bostonians. Their anticipation for victory was halted when a major storm interfered, scattering their fleets. Two years later, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle brought peace to the opposing French and British. The British returned Lousibourg to France, in return for claiming Madras in India. Colonists were so furious, that London had to reimburse colonial governments for money that was lost in Pepperrell campaigns.

 

 

 

 

            Although both sides experienced great losses, and a peace treaty was reached in 1748, French and British rivalry in North America would not resolve for another 15 years. ^[16]

Photo Courtesy Of: http://www.irwinator.com/126/5-1.jpg

 

   

 

 

 

King George’s War’s Impact on New England 

 

 

 

      Before the war, New England was plagued by poor soil, lack of hired workers, and held the lowest average wealth per freeholder. Due to the nature of the landscape, New Englanders mainly survived off of subsistence farming and livestock. However, the high population of wealthy merchants living in New England profited from the Caribbean trading of items such as livestock, molasses, and salt fish.

 

 

 

  

However, the arrival of King George’s War was accompanied by the demand for equipment and ships. By the 1730s, Boston had established a major shipbuilding center.  In the beginning phases of the war, Boston’s economy was stimulated due to the command for ships and sailors. However, New Englander’s expensive victory at Louisbourg caused heightened taxes that enraged locals, and turned New England wives into widows. ^[17]

 Photo Courtesy Of:  http://ab.mec.edu/jamestown/images/ship2.gif

 

 

 

          ~King George’s War’s Impact on the Middle Colonies & the Chesapeake

 

 

     Although the war was initially beneficial for the New England colonies, the South’s exceptional soil fertility enabled the South to surpass the success of the New Englanders. Southern grains fed the soldiers during the war, boosting the farming economy. Subsequent to the war, Europe experienced several poor grain harvests, inflating the price of flour.  

 

 

 After 1745, when grain prices rose faster than tobacco prices, people of the Chesapeake began converting tobacco fields into wheat and corn fields. Although tobacco was still their leading export, the diversification in agriculture avoided a single product dependency, and also encouraged the construction of port towns to house merchants and their new products, such as Baltimore.

                                           

 

Photo Courtesy Of: http://www.indiamart.com/imliwala/pcat-gifs/categories/grains.jpg 

 

  

 

 

 

 

The Founding of Georgia

                     

        Futures looked bright for indebted English, who had been confined for their poor management of money. Chartered by James Oglethorpe in 1732, who alone of all the colony planters lived till after the Revolution and saw the thirteen colonies become an independant nation. Georgia served as a fresh start for English debtors. Oglethorpe’s objective was to establish a stronghold society of farmers. Georgia’s geographic location made it somewhat of a buffer between the British colonies and Spanish Florida.  

 

 

 

 

      Initially, Georgia prohibited slavery. However, that was soon changed when money hungry South Carolinians invaded in 1751, transforming politically independent Georgia into a slavery supporting, rice plantation society. It was greed that drove people to accept slavery, and to use this as a method for making a profit from the cultivation they owned.

 

Slavery’s Impact on Colonial Society

 

 

            The Dutch monopolization over sub-Saharan African slave trade was responsible for the transportation of about 100,000 slaves to British Caribbean plantations. Slavery worked its way upward into the United States shortly after the British settled in Virginia in 1607. Their treatment by the colonists would become one of America’s most shameful acts, and would eventually possess enough power and controversy to divide the nation that cost years, and thousands of lives, to unify. These slaves were employed in battles caused, or initiated by the colonists. Africans were forced to fight for a country that, not only were they not a part of, but also a country that supported the brutal enslavement of the people in  their homeland.

The Education of Slaves

    Because many felt that literacy within the slave community would rock the system of keeping them under tight control the South Carolina Act was introduced to prevent slaves from learning even the basics of reading and writing and the teaching of this knowledge punishable by a fine of up to one hundred pounds or even in extreme cases run out of town.^[18] However there were some who despite the stipulations braved it and taught anyway. One, John Chavis who for quite a few years ran secret night schoolsin Raleigh, NC or another Mary Douglass who taught black children in Norfolk Virginia but was unfortunately convicted and run out of town^[19].

 

 

 

 

Cato's Conspiracy/Stono Rebellion--1739--Approximately 80 slaves armed themselves and attempted to march toward Spanish Florida from their home area of Stono, South Carolina. When confronted by a group of white militia, a battle ensued. Forty-four blacks and twenty-one whites perished.

 

 

New York Conspiracy--March and April, 1741-- Thirty-one slaves and four whites were executed as a result of rumors of a major slave rebellion in New York City. It is unknown whether these rumors were based on fact or were part of a larger paranoia which existed regarding slave uprisings.

 

 

 

Tabaco Industries 

 

 

 

        Due to its immeasurable demand by Europeans and wealthy colonists, tobacco accounted for twenty five percent of colonial exports, making it the most important commodity throughout the eighteenth century. The vigorous labor required for the production of tobacco required a greater amount of slaves, which in turn, developed slave societies in the Southern plantation colonies. The rape of female slaves by their masters, and slave families established in the new slave societies naturally increased the population of slaves, allowing the colonists to no longer depend on the slave trading industry. People would turn a blind eye to all that was going on around them. Although there were some who did not agree with slavery and all that it involved it was becoming acceptable as a society.

 

 

 

 

 

Rebelling Against the White Man

 

 

 

                        Brutalization, rape, and the dehumanization of slaves by their masters maintained fear in slaves, even if they outnumbered the plantation owners. However, for those courageous enough, some slaves rebelled in several ways. Due to the inexperience of some plantation owners, slaves had to teach their agricultural skills. In return, many slaves demanded their owners to exercise the task system. Under the task system, slaves worked independently on a variety of chores, rather than working collectively on one task at a time. This system also allowed slaves to leave after the completion of their daily responsibilities. Slaves also ran away, or even attacked their masters. ^[20]

 

 

 

 Virginia Slave Code       

 

          Throughout the last half of 17^th century America, the status of Africans in Virginia became less promising. Black slaves were replacing black indentured servants. Indentured servants were Africans brought to America on the credit of a plantation owner. In return for the migration, the Africans would have to pay off their debt by working, usually in the fields, for around seven to ten years. In 1705, the Virginia General Assembly passed Virginia Slave Codes in order to protect slave masters. Such codes stated, "All servants imported and brought into the Country...who were not Christians in their native Country...shall be accounted and be slaves. All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion...shall be held to be real estate. If any slave resist his master...correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction...the master shall be free of all punishment...as if such accident never happened." 

 

          Other colonies would later replicate similar codes. The law not only justified, but also essentially encouraged the brutal physical punishment of those enslaved.  Other regulations of the Code included the following. Written consent from masters must be completed if slaves wanted to leave the plantation.  Any major offenses committed by slaves, such as robbery, would result in sixty lashes. Slaves who engaged in minor offenses, such as interacting with whites, were worthy of being branded, whipped, or maimed.   

 

 

 

 

      However, for some slave masters, whipping was exhausting. They also feared damaging any valuable workers. Stocks and pillories were invented as a means to punish slaves, and did not require much labor from the plantation owners. These contraptions would trap the limbs of slaves, and were usually placed in public. Field stocks often substituted flogging, and were very popular among the female slaves. Stocks were placed on the victim’s hands, which were adjusted above her head.  horizontal stocks were provided for her feet. The hand stocks were usually raised high enough so that  the slave’s toes no longer touched the ground, placing their entire body weight on their wrists and  toes. Lead or iron weights were sometimes secured to the wrists in order to increase the  punishment. ^[21]

  

 

 

 

            Before 1705, slaves who were involved in disputes with their masters had the freedom to  bring these issues to court for judgment. However, they lost this freedom with the passing of the Virginia Slave Code in 1705. In the absence of any consequences, slave owners could break even the most rebellious slaves, even if their punishment resulted in death. ^[22] [23]

 

 

 

For a complete list of the Virginia Slave Codes, follow this link: 

http://www.houseofrussell.com/legalhistory/alh/docs/virginiaslaverystatutes.html

Photo Courtesy Of:  http://www.geocities.com/westhollywood/heights/9417/slaves.html

 

 

 

 

Small Pox Inoculation in Boston

 

 

 

                    The first inoculation to ever take place in America happened on June 26th, 1721 in Boston. What is known as a clinical trial took place, when Dr. Zabdiel Boylston performed his medical procedure on two male slaves and his own son.Boylston introduced a very miniscule dose of smallpox into his subjects, thus creating a natural immunity. It was believed that smallpox and other epidemics were acts of God punishing man for their sins. Boylston's medical endeavors caused controversy that would scare the religious people in the colonies, despite the smallpox epidemic. ^[24] The first cure, in the form of a vaccination, for small pox was created in 1801 also in Boston, Massachusetts. Even with this medical breakthrough people still panicked, most likely do to the fact that people were still unsure abut the idea of vaccinations. ^[25] 

 

 

Richard Saunders and Benjamin Franklin are one in the same

 

                    December 1732, Benjamin Franklin has his book Poor Richard's Almanac. This book is published under his pen name of, Richard Saunders. The book was aimed towards Irish and German immigrants who would move into British Colonies. The book was sold in large ammounts and recounted lots of European history and dates. The almanac carried a lot of moral meaning and aphorisms, which Franklin would later become well known for writing. Franklin felt that he should establish a sense of moral normalcy in the colonies. ^[26] 

 

 

Benjamin Franklin starts a new kind of school: The rise of the American Academy

 

 

In 1751, Franklin started a new institution called the American Academy, also known as the Philadelphia Academy, which would eventually become The University of Pennsylvania. ^[27] Franklin wrote publicized proposals for the reform of education, which later granted him access to start his school. Education at the time was mainly focused on biblical studies, and was very different from the modern standards of academia. Franklin chose to include foreign languages, math and science into the curriclum. Ideas such as these were somewhat radical to some, however; these subjects would help the students in learning how to do certain skills that would later advance America in the studies of Science and Math. ^[28]

 

 

Harvard takes steps toward secular Academia

In 1708, Harvard elects its first non-clergy member to president. John Leverett did not change the Harvard curriculum, nor did he make any direct changes in the structure of the school. By simply putting a non-clergy president into office, Harvard had taken steps toward a more academic focused school, rather than a school focused on divinity and religion. Leverett did not intend to take religion away from the school, but make it more of a point to focus on the idea of "learning."^[29]

 

 

 

Colonial Children are "gendered" at an early age: Education of tasks

During the colonial development of the United States, children often served practical uses for harvesting and helping their parents. Typically, girls would make soap, harvest food, clean, and make candles. It can be assumed that many modern stereotypes were made from this model. A child's life was based around the neccesities of their families. These tasks were mostly dependent on the time of year.^[30]

 

 

"

March-time to go collect maple sugar

 

 

April-preparing the ground

 

 

May-staring the garden

 

 

June-hay making

 

 

July~August-harvesting

 

 

September-making apple cider

 

 

October-gathering nuts

 

 

November-going to husk corn"

 

-Diagram courtesy of ^[31]

 

 

As the centuries transitioned from the 1700s to the 1800s, children modeled their attire after their parents and adults, just like they did their behaviors and tasks. Boys often shaved their heads, and wore whigs; older men did this during this time. Girls wore dresses, like their mothers. Education was very "practical" during early America, there was not a high demand for academia; education was focused on skills needed to survive, as well as make children suitable for society.^[32]

 

 

 

Albany Plan of Union

 

 

            From June 19 – July 11, 1754, representatives of the seven British North American colonies met in Albany, New York to debate defensive measures against the French, and building stronger, more peaceful relations with the Natives. These seven colonies were Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island. Note that Georgia representatives were absent. 

 

 

 

            Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan of Union. Franklin’s proposal placed emphasis on a more centralized government, still under authority of the British crown. The seven colonies adopted the Plan of Union on July 10, 1754 in a meeting referred to as the Albany Congress. While the plan was never put into action, it was a stepping-stone for the colonies to unite collectively under one government. Part of the Albany Plan would later be utilized while writing the Articles of Confederation.

 

                        The crown had originally wanted the colonies to meet in order to sign a treaty with the Iroquois that offered a clear Native-colonial relation policy intended to be followed by all colonies. Immediate cooperation was essential due to the imminence of the French and Indian War. After the plan was unveiled, the Crown did not push it since British officials realized that, if adopted, the plan could create a very powerful entity that His Majesty's Government might not be able to control. The royal counselors need not have worried; the colonists were not ready for union, nor were the colonial assemblies ready to give up their recent and hard-won control over local affairs to a central government. That would not happen until well after the American settlements had declared their independence. ^[33] Photo Courtesy Of: http://www.constitution.org/bcp/albany.htm

 

 

 

Racism--Slave Revolts

     Accepting the fact that more people than not think of you as lesser than dirt would be a very hard idea to accept, and it was nearly impossible to accept by most slaves.  Inevitably, unfathomable amounts of rage built up in many of the slaves causing them to ultimately rebel.  One of the first recorded slave revolts occured on April 7, 1712 in New York.  A handful of African slaves and Native American slaves set fire to an outhouse causing many white slave owners to react.  As they slave owners were putting out the fire, the slaves attacked, killing nine and injuring six.  To protect themselves, the slaves hid out in the woods until they thought it was safe enough to run.  Once news of the rebellion reached the government, a militia was put together in search of those responsible for the revolt.  Because the militia was armed much better than the slaves, they were quickly found.  Along the way, six slaves took their own lives as to prevent the brutal consequences they knew they would face.  The others that were captured were beaten brutally before being executed.  This marked the beginning of a long chain of slave revolts in American until the end of slavery.  From this point on, slave owners everywhere feared the revolts that many slaves were capable or organizing.   

    On September 9, 1739, Jemmy, a literate slave, led nearly 20 other enslaved persons south of the Stono River in South Carolina, and along the way he recruited 60 more slaves.  This marked the biggest slave revolt that the Englsih colonies had seen yet.  It wasn't until just near the Edisto River that the rebels were intercepted by a militia.  All together, about 45 whites were killed.  The slaves who survived were either executed or sold into slavery in the West Indies.  Inevitably, the government took action and passed the Negro Act of 1740.  In this act, it restricted slave assembly, education, and movement.  It also established penalties against the harsh treatments of slaves by slave owners.

 

 

Works Cited

1. http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/449070/the_new_york_city_slave_revolt_of_1712_pg2.html?cat=37

 

 

 

 

George Washington

Vaccination Health Group 

 

 

The French were against attacking the provence of new york because they were relucftant to arouse the irequois, who they feared more than the British. In new York merchants were optomiwstic about not atacking new france, because it would interrupt the Indian fur trade; which was coming through New France. In 1701 the Iroquois had signed the great treace of montreal with the French, and also they maintained their neutrality early in the war. Has Nicholas led a  failed land expedition against Quebec in 1709, the Iroquois promised some support, but had took there time doing so until the expedition had been called off. In 1710, peter schuyler, the albany commissioner of the indians, had traveled to London with the king and other sachems to arouse interest in America's northwest frontier. In 1711, with the walter expodition and the associated nicolson expitition of 1711, the british planned a joint naval and land attack against the quebeck city; the capital of New France. When the fleet led by hovendon walker was partially sunk while traveling up the St. larence river , the naval and land expeditions were called off. In this expedition, the Iroquois provided several hundred warriors to fight with the English, but they also sent warnings of the expedition to the French.